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"The Complete Guide to Observing Lunar, Grazing and Asteroid Occultations" от IOTA (pdf, 7,9 MB), автор Richard Nugent.
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Table of Contents1 INTRODUCTION TO OCCULTATIONS..................................... .................101.1 SCIENTIFIC USES OF OCCULTATIONS.....................................
............12
1.2 THE INTERNATIONAL OCCULTATION TIMING ASSOCIATION, IOTA..........................16
1.3 THE INTERNATIONAL LUNAR OCCULTATION CENTER (ILOC) ..............................17
1.4 OCCULTATION FIRSTS...........................................
...................18
1.5 IOTA GOALS AND OBJECTIVES .................................................
.....21
1.5.1 Double Stars .................................................
................22
1.5.2 Satellites of Asteroids........................................
...............22
2 OBSERVING PREREQUISITES.................................... .......................242.1 SKILLS .................................................
........................24
2.2 RESOURCES .................................................
.....................24
2.2.1 Expenses.........................................
.............................25
2.3 PERSONAL CONSIDERATIONS AND BEHAVIOR.........................................
...25
2.4 WHAT IF SOMETHING GOES WRONG? .................................................
.27
2.5 OBSERVING POST-REQUISITES .................................................
.....27
3 TYPES OF OCCULTATION PROJECTS ................................................. ...283.1 TOTAL OCCULTATIONS.....................................
.........................28
3.2 METHODOLOGY......................................
...............................29
3.2.1 Equipment .................................................
...................30
3.2.2 The Telescope .................................................
...............30
3.2.3 Short Wave Receivers .................................................
........33
3.2.4 Recorders........................................
.............................34
3.2.5 Equipment Check List .................................................
........34
3.3 HOW TO OBSERVE A TOTAL OCCULTATION .............................................35
3.4 REDUCING THE OBSERVATION......................................
..................38
3.5 SENDING IN YOUR OBSERVATIONS.....................................
...............39
3.6 DOUBLE STARS............................................
........................40
3.7 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS .................................................
.........41
4 PREDICTIONS...................................... .................................434.1 LUNAR OCCULTATION WORKBENCH (LOW) ..............................................43
4.2 OCCULT .................................................
........................49
4.2.1 Sample Total occultation output generated by Occult (partial listing):........50
4.2.2 Eclipses and Transits .................................................
.......53
4.2.3 Asteroid Event Predictions .................................................
..56
4.2.4 Ephemerides and Mutual Events ................................................5
9
4.2.5 Record and Reduce...........................................
..................60
4.2.6 Baily’s Beads............................................
.....................60
4.2.7 How to obtain Occult Software ................................................6
0
4.2.8 How to Obtain Predictions Only ...............................................60
4.3 ROYAL ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF CANADA OBSERVER’S HANDBOOK........................61
4.4 STANDARD STATION PREDICTIONS – IOTA WEBSITE.....................................63
4.4.1 Standard Station Predictions and Your Location ...............................63
4.5 TRAINING AND SIMULATION.......................................
..................64
4.5.1 Simulation Software .................................................
.........65
4.6 RESULTS AND REPORTING OBSERVATIONS .............................................66
4.6.1 ILOC Yearly Publications .................................................
....66
4.6.2 IOTA Website Publications.....................................
................66
4.6.3 Reporting Your Lunar Occultation Observations to ILOC.........................66
4.6.4 Asteroid Occultation Reporting and Results ...................................66
5 LUNAR GRAZING OCCULTATIONS..................................... ...................695.1 INTRODUCTION.....................................
...............................69
5.2 SCIENTIFIC VALUE OF GRAZES...........................................
...........71
5.2.1 What to Expect When Observing a Graze.........................................73
5.3 THE LUNAR LIMB PROFILE .................................................
........73
5.4 OBSERVING GRAZES .................................................
..............74
5.5 ELEVATION CORRECTION .................................................
..........76
5.6 HOW TO APPLY THE LIMIT LINE CORRECTION.......................................
...78
5.7 GRAZING OCCULTATION PREDICTIONS ................................................8
1
5.7.1 Overview of Predictions .................................................
.....82
5.7.2 Column Data.............................................
......................83
5.7.3 Limb Profile Predictions......................................
................85
5.7.4 Using Lunar Occultation Workbench for Predictions of Grazes...................88
5.7.5 Using Occult for Predictions of Grazes........................................91
5.7.6 Reading Occult’s Lunar Limb Profile Plot......................................94
5.7.7 How to Station Observers for a Graze..........................................95
5.8 HOW TO PLOT GRAZE PATH LIMIT LINES............................................
..96
5.8.1 Plotting and Locating Observer Graze Stations ................................98
5.8.2 Google Earth Maps.............................................
................98
5.9 GRAZE PROFILE USE .................................................
.............99
5.10 FINDING THE TIME OF CENTRAL GRAZE............................................
..100
5.11 ORGANIZING GRAZING OCCULTATION EXPEDITIONS ....................................101
5.11.1 Preparation......................................
............................102
5.11.2 Site Selection........................................
.......................102
5.11.3 Observer Notification And Preparation......................................
..104
5.12 EXPEDITION RESULTS AND REPORTING........................................
.......104
5.13 OTHER TIPS FOR MAKING A SUCCESSFUL GRAZE EXPEDITION ...........................104
5.13.1 Reasons for Failure..........................................
................107
5.14 APPROXIMATE REDUCTION AND SHIFT DETERMINATION..................................10
8
6 ASTEROID OCCULTATIONS ................................................. ...........1096.1 SCIENTIFIC VALUE............................................
....................110
6.2 ASTEROID SATELLITES.......................................
......................111
6.3 EQUIPMENT NEEDED...........................................
.....................114
6.3.1 Visual Observation and Timing...........................................
......114
6.3.2 Video Observation and Timing...........................................
.......114
6.4 METHODOLOGY......................................
...............................115
6.4.1 Analyzing the Event Before You Try It ........................................115
6.4.2 What to Expect When You Make the Observation..................................116
6.4.3 Example Timeline .................................................
............120
6.5 TECHNIQUES.......................................
...............................121
6.5.1 Visual...........................................
.............................121
6.5.2 Video .................................................
.......................122
6.5.3 Locating the Target Star Using Video..........................................12
3
6.5.4 Remote Video at Unattended Video Site(s) .....................................125
6.5.5 Image Intensified Video............................................
...........127
6.5.6 CCD Camera Drift Scan.............................................
............128
6.5.7 Photography......................................
.............................128
6.6 PREDICTIONS......................................
...............................129
6.6.1 Overview of the Prediction Process..........................................
..129
6.6.2 Using the Updates..........................................
...................130
6.7 ORGANIZING EXPEDITIONS......................................
....................132
6.7.1 The Organizer/Coordinator .................................................
...134
6.8 TRAINING AND SIMULATION.......................................
..................135
6.9 RESULTS OF ASTEROID OCCULTATIONS.....................................
...........136
6.10 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS...................................
.......................136
6.11 NEGATIVE OBSERVATIONS.....................................
.....................137
6.12 REPORTING OBSERVATIONS.....................................
....................137
6.12.1 Report Form.............................................
.....................137
6.13 ASTEROID OCCULTATION PROFILES AND ANALYSIS.....................................138
7 SITE POSITION DETERMINATION.................................... ...................1457.1 ACCURACY REQUIREMENTS.....................................
......................145
7.1.1 Definition.......................................
.............................146
7.2 DETERMINATION OF ELEVATION FROM USGS TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS...........................147
7.3 COORDINATE DETERMINATION USING THE GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)..............148
7.3.1 How GPS Receivers Work.............................................
...........149
7.3.2 GPS Errors...........................................
.........................151
7.3.3 Using GPS receivers........................................
...................153
7.4 COORDINATE DETERMINATION USING THE INTERNET.....................................154
7.5 COORDINATE DETERMINATION USING SOFTWARE PROGRAMS................................156
7.6 ELEVATION DETERMINATION USING THE INTERNET......................................158
7.7 DETERMINING POSITION FROM USGS 1:24,000 SCALE TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS..................159
7.7.1 Locating your observing site on the map.......................................160
7.7.2 Numerical Example..........................................
...................162
7.8 APPROXIMATE COORDINATE AND /ELEVATION DETERMINATION USING
THE ATLAS & GAZETTEER MAPS.............................................
.............165
8 TIMING STRATEGIES FOR OCCULTATIONS..................................... ...........1688.1 STOPWATCH METHOD...........................................
.....................169
8.1.1 Stopwatch Errors...........................................
...................170
8.2 ESTIMATING PERSONAL EQUATION.........................................
...........172
8.3 TIMING A SINGLE OCCULTATION EVENT............................................
...174
8.4 TIMING AN ASTEROID OCCULTATION......................................
............175
8.4.1 Accuracy of Your Observations.....................................
............176
8.4.2 Best Stopwatches for Timing Occultations.....................................
.176
8.4.3 Calculating the Duration and Times of Disappearance and Reappearance..........177
8.5 TAPE/VOICE RECORDER METHOD...........................................
...........178
8.6 TAPE RECORDER OR DIGITAL VOICE RECORDER?........................................178
8.7 EYE AND EAR METHOD...........................................
...................180
8.8 ALTERNATE METHODS FOR LIMITED EQUIPMENT........................................
.181
8.8.1 AM radio as a Time Standard.........................................
..........181
8.8.3 US Naval Observatory Master Clock............................................
.181
8.8.4 WWV VOICE ANNOUNCEMENTS....................................
...................182
8.8.5 GPS Time.............................................
.........................182
8.8.6 WWV Alarm Clock............................................
...................183
8.9 CCD DRIFT SCAN METHOD FOR ASTEROID OCCULTATIONS.................................184
8.9.1 Observational Methods for CCD Drift Scan Technique............................185
8.9.2 Measuring Event Times............................................
.............186
8.10 VIDEO RECORDING OF OCCULTATIONS.....................................
...........188
8.11 REDUCING EVENT TIMES FROM VIDEO............................................
....191
8.12 VIDEO TIME INSERTION........................................
...................193
8.13 GPS TIME INSERTION........................................
.....................194
8.13.1 LiMovie: Photometric Analysis of the Occultation.............................200
8.14 INTERNATIONAL TIME AND TIME STANDARDS........................................
..204
8.15 TIME SCALE DEFINITIONS......................................
...................205
8.16 COORDINATED UNIVERSAL TIME.............................................
........206
8.17 RADIO PROPAGATION DELAY............................................
............207
8.18 TIME DELAY OF SOUND............................................
................208
8.19 SHORT WAVE RADIO SIGNAL RECEPTION QUALITY......................................209
8.20 TIMINGS WITHOUT SHORTWAVE TIME SIGNALS.........................................2
10
9 COLD WEATHER OBSERVING........................................ ....................2129.1 PERSONAL SAFETY...........................................
......................211
9.2 EQUIPMENT IN THE COLD.............................................
..............214
9.3 BATTERIES........................................
...............................215
9.4 KEEPING BATTERIES WARM.............................................
.............216
9.5 CARE AND FEEDING OF BATTERIES........................................
...........217
9.6 LITHIUM BATTERIES........................................
.......................217
10 UNATTENDED VIDEO STATIONS......................................... ...............21910.1 PLANNING THE EXPEDITION.......................................
.................219
10.1.1 Techniques of Pointing the Telescope........................................
.220
10.1.2 The Tracking Method...........................................
...............220
10.1.3 The Drift Through Method...........................................
..........221
10.2 EQUIPMENT........................................
..............................226
10.2.1 Type of event............................................
....................227
10.2.2 Camera Sensitivity .................................................
.........227
10.2.3 Video Field of View.............................................
.............227
10.2.4 BATTERY LIFE.............................................
....................228
10.3 TIMEKEEPING......................................
..............................229
10.3.1 Observing Site .................................................
.............230
10.3.2 Observer’s Abilities........................................
.................230
10.3.3 A Note about VCR’s...........................................................230
10.4 SITE SELECTION........................................
.........................230
10.4.1 Lunar Grazing Occultations.....................................
..............231
10.4.2 Asteroidal Occultations.....................................
.................231
10.4.3 Using Private Property.........................................
..............231
10.4.4 Hiding the Telescope and Equipment........................................
...232
10.4.5 Leaving a Note.............................................
..................233
10.5 ADDITIONAL APPLICATIONS.....................................
...................233
10.6 VIDEOCAMERA SENSITIVITY AND THE DETECTION OF FAINT STARS.......................233
11 SOLAR ECLIPSES AND THE SOLAR DIAMETER......................................... ...23811.1 HISTORICAL MEASUREMENTS OF THE SUN’S RADIUS....................................238
11.2 METHODS USED TO MEASURE THE SOLAR DIAMETER.....................................240
11.3 HOW IOTA MEASURES THE SUN’S DIAMETER DURING A SOLAR ECLIPSE....................242
11.4 THE TOTAL ECLIPSES OF 1715 AND 1925............................................2
46
11.5 THE ECLIPSES OF 1976 AND 1979.............................................
.....248
11.6 THE ECLIPSES OF 1995, 1998, 1999, AND 2002.....................................249
11.7 OBSERVING SOLAR ECLIPSES.........................................
..............249
11.8 EYE AND TELESCOPE SAFETY...........................................
............250
11.9 OBSERVING TECHNIQUES.......................................
....................251
11.9.1 Video............................................
............................251
11.9.2 Video Field of View.............................................
.............252
11.10 SITE SELECTION........................................
........................252
11.11 REPORTING OBSERVATIONS.....................................
...................253
11.12 OBSERVING HINTS AND SUGGESTIONS......................................
.........253
12 HALF A CENTURY OF OCCULTATIONS..................................... ..............25612.1 INTRODUCTION.....................................
..............................256
12.2 THE BEGINNING OF MODERN OCCULTATION OBSERVING..................................256
12.3 CHASING THE MOON’S SHADOW...........................................
...........257
12.4 PIONEERING SUCCESSES AND CHASING STAR SHADOWS..................................258
12.5 EARLY PUBLICITY........................................
........................259
12.6 OF CABLES AND RADIOS...........................................
................261
12.7 STRENGTHS…AND WEAKNESSES .................................................
.....262
12.8 THE FOUNDING OF IOTA.............................................
..............263
12.9 PURSUING SHADOWS OF ASTEROIDS .................................................
264
12.10 NOTABLE OCCULTATION EVENTS...........................................
.........269
12.11 PLANETARY OCCULTATIONS.....................................
...................272
12.12 IOTA WORLDWIDE........................................
........................273
12.13 A HALF-CENTURY OF GRAZES AND ASTEROIDAL OCCULTATIONS..........................276
12.14 NOTABLE RECOGNITION......................................
.....................279
APPENDIX A. OCCULTATION SOURCES AND FURTHER INFORMATION.............................281
APPENDIX B. REFERENCES....................................... .......................286
APPENDIX C. SAMPLE GRAZE PROFILE.......................................... ..........294
APPENDIX D. EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS........................................ .............297
APPENDIX E. CORRECTION OF PROFILE TO ACTUAL OBSERVING LOCATION......................303
APPENDIX F. REPORT FORMS............................................ ................309
APPENDIX G: EQUIPMENT SETUP CONFIGURATION.................................... .......332
APPENDIX H. WHERE TO SEND OBSERVATION REPORTS.......................................338
APPENDIX I. GLOSSARY......................................... .......................341
APPENDIX J. DETAILS OF SHORTWAVE TIME SIGNALS FOR OCCULTATION TIMINGS...............355
APPENDIX K. USEFUL WEB ADDRESSES........................................ ............359
APPENDIX L. WHY OBSERVE OCCULTATIONS FLYER..........................................36 3
APPENDIX M. IOTA ANNUAL MEETINGS......................................... ...........367
APPENDIX O. CONVERSIONS, UNITS, COORDINATE SYSTEMS..................................369
APPENDIX P. TIPS FROM THE ARCHIVES OF IOTA OBSERVERS................................376
INDEX............................................ ...................................379